Recycling of future batteries

Abstract

Rapid development in future battery technologies, including solid-state batteries ‎‎(SSBs) and sodium-ion batteries (SIBs), is diversifying battery chemistries, bring‎ing both opportunities and challenges to end-of-life (EoL) battery recycling with ‎the existing recycling infrastructures. This study explores the feasibility of integra‎tion of emerging battery chemistries into existing lithium-ion battery (LIB) recy‎cling flow sheets, with a focus on hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical approaches. Also, a novel type EoL Sodium-SO2 battery CAM characterization and ‎leaching behaviour has been studied. ‎

In theory, pyrometallurgy offers high tolerance to compositional variability, yet ‎further hydrometallurgical treatment is needed. In contrast, hydrometallurgy ena‎bles selective, high-yield material recovery but faces uncertainties related to con‎tamination risks of battery-grade materials and needs extra purification steps. Wa‎ter-based selective leaching emerges as a potential preliminary treatment for certain solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) and to remove sodium ions from the cathode ‎active material (CAM)‎, potentially mitigating contamination during CAM separation. In the experiments, while effective leaching of NaCl is detected in the sodium ‎deactivation step, a new phase formation in the presence of halide and sulfur is ‎observed. Leaching efficiency out of this new phase shows fast leaching behavior in ‎the first few minutes using different lixiviants for Al and S (~90% Al in ‎1 M‎ H₂SO₄, ‎‎60-70% Al and 50-65% S in ‎1 M‎ HCl). ‎

In conclusion, the results highlight the potential for separating new chemistries, ‎while underscoring the need for accurate battery identification, aided by tools like ‎the battery passport, to ensure safe and efficient recycling.‎