Browsing by Author "Laurila, Tomi"

Filter results by typing the first few letters
Now showing 1 - 20 of 140
  • Accurate Computational Prediction of Core-Electron Binding Energies in Carbon-Based Materials: A Machine-Learning Model Combining Density-Functional Theory and GW
    (2022-07-13) Golze, Dorothea; Hirvensalo, Markus; Hernández-León, Patricia; Aarva, Anja; Etula, Jarkko; Susi, Toma; Rinke, Patrick; Laurila, Tomi; Caro, Miguel A.
     A1 Alkuperäisartikkeli tieteellisessä aikakauslehdessä
    We present a quantitatively accurate machine-learning (ML) model for the computational prediction of core-electron binding energies, from which X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra can be readily obtained. Our model combines density functional theory (DFT) with GW and uses kernel ridge regression for the ML predictions. We apply the new approach to disordered materials and small molecules containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and obtain qualitative and quantitative agreement with experiment, resolving spectral features within 0.1 eV of reference experimental spectra. The method only requires the user to provide a structural model for the material under study to obtain an XPS prediction within seconds. Our new tool is freely available online through the XPS Prediction Server.
  • Accurate schemes for calculation of thermodynamic properties of liquid mixtures from molecular dynamics simulations
    (2016-12-28) Caro, Miguel A.; Laurila, Tomi; Lopez-Acevedo, Olga
     A1 Alkuperäisartikkeli tieteellisessä aikakauslehdessä
    We explore different schemes for improved accuracy of entropy calculations in aqueous liquid mixtures from molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. We build upon the two-phase thermodynamic (2PT) model of Lin et al. [J. Chem. Phys. 119, 11792 (2003)] and explore new ways to obtain the partition between the gas-like and solid-like parts of the density of states, as well as the effect of the chosen ideal “combinatorial” entropy of mixing, both of which have a large impact on the results. We also propose a first-order correction to the issue of kinetic energy transfer between degrees of freedom (DoF). This problem arises when the effective temperatures of translational, rotational, and vibrational DoF are not equal, either due to poor equilibration or reduced system size/time sampling, which are typical problems for ab initio MD. The new scheme enables improved convergence of the results with respect to configurational sampling, by up to one order of magnitude, for short MD runs. To ensure a meaningful assessment, we perform MD simulations of liquid mixtures of water with several other molecules of varying sizes: methanol, acetonitrile, N, N-dimethylformamide, and n-butanol. Our analysis shows that results in excellent agreement with experiment can be obtained with little computational effort for some systems. However, the ability of the 2PT method to succeed in these calculations is strongly influenced by the choice of force field, the fluidicity (hard-sphere) formalism employed to obtain the solid/gas partition, and the assumed combinatorial entropy of mixing. We tested two popular force fields, GAFF and OPLS with SPC/E water. For the mixtures studied, the GAFF force field seems to perform as a slightly better “all-around” force field when compared to OPLS+SPC/E.
  • Adsorption of 17-βbeta-estradiol on Pristine Graphene - A First-principles Structure Search Study
    (2024-09-05) Sippola, Saara
     School of Electrical Engineering | Master's thesis
    17-beta-estradiol (E2) is a steroid hormone that has widespread impacts on the human body and the environment. Currently, the gold standard for its measurement is a conventional blood test coupled with mass spectrometry. Electrochemical sensing has been proposed as an alternative that would enable continuous measurement of E2 sensitively and selectively. Possible application areas include clinical trials, fertility monitoring, and water purification. In this Thesis, I studied the adsorption of E2 on pristine graphene computationally using density-functional theory. There were two objectives to the work: 1) to determine any stable and unique adsorption configurations of E2 on graphene, and 2) analyse the found structures to determine, whether the nature of adsorption was physical or chemical by detecting the presence of any chemical bonds. In order to fulfill the first objective, I employed Bayesian Optimization Structure Search (BOSS) to reduce the human bias that is otherwise involved in the selection of adsorption configuration candidates. As a result, I detected two unique adsorption configurations of E2 on pristine graphene. Analysis of their electronic structure revealed that both structures physisorb on graphene. This study is a preliminary step towards understanding the atomic-scale interactions involved in the adsorption process. In the future, this work could be expanded by considering the effects of environmental parameters, such as solvation and electrode potential, to the adsorption process. More realistic simulations could support and accelerate experimental sensor development.
  • Advanced Nanocellulose-Based Electrochemical Sensor for Tetracycline Monitoring
    (2024-10-01) Nekoueian, Khadijeh; Kontturi, Katri S; Meinander, Kristoffer; Quliyeva, Ulviyya; Kousar, Ayesha; Durairaj, Vasuki; Tammelin, Tekla; Laurila, Tomi
     A1 Alkuperäisartikkeli tieteellisessä aikakauslehdessä
    Antibiotics play a pivotal role in healthcare and agriculture, but their overuse and environmental presence pose critical challenges. Developing sustainable and effective detection methodologies is crucial to mitigating antibiotic resistance and environmental contamination. This study presents a cellulosic polymer-based electrochemical sensor by integrating TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers-polyethyleneimine hybrids (TOCNFs-PEI) with single-walled carbon nanotube networks (SWCNTs). Our research focuses on (i) conducting physicochemical and electrochemical studies of multifunctional SWCNT/TOCNFs-PEI architectures, (ii) elucidating the relationships between the material's properties and their electrochemical performance, and (iii) assessing its performance in detecting tetracycline concentrations in both controlled and more complex matrices (treated wastewater effluents). The limits of detection were evaluated to be 0.180 µmol L−1 (at the potential of 0.85 V) and 0.112 µmol L−1 (at the potential of 0.65 V) in phosphate-buffered saline solution, and 2.46 µmol L−1 (at the potential of 0.82 V) and 1.5 µmol L−1 (at the potential of 0.65 V) in the undiluted membrane bioreactor effluent sample, respectively. Further, the designed cellulosic polymer-based sensing architecture is compatible with large-scale production, paving the way for a new era of green, versatile sensing devices. These developments will significantly contribute to global efforts to alleviate antibiotic resistance and environmental contamination.
  • Agglomeration of nanodiamonds during deposition
    (2017-12-11) Sievänen, Mikael
     Sähkötekniikan korkeakoulu | Master's thesis
    As nanodiamond (ND) has excellent mechanical, electrical and optical properties, their use in different biomedical applications is desired. However, nanodiamond agglomeration is a common issue, that is causing problems when trying to use NDs in biomedical applications, carriers in drug delivery, coating for sensor or implant materials or in nanoelectronics. This thesis goes through literature related to NDs and especially their agglomeration. NDs form resilient aggregates and single-digit NDs can’t be produced without proper deagglomeration before dispersion in solvent. According to literature, it can be stated that most common methods used in mechanical deagglomeration of NDs are media milling and beads-assisted sonic disintegrating (BASD). These techniques use small zirconium oxide balls that break ND agglomerates by colliding with them in media. The problem with these methods is that they cause zirconium contamination in ND particles. Zirconium is difficult to remove from NDs and contamination makes it harder to use NDs in applications. Laboratory experiments performed in this research indicate that ethylene glycol and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) were most suitable solvents for NDs. Size of ND agglomerates were smaller in these solvents than in other commonly used ND solvents tested, such as DI water and ethanol. This observation is in line with information found in ND related literature.
  • Akkuteknologia sähköautoissa
    (2010) Virta, Jaakko
     Elektroniikan, tietoliikenteen ja automaation tiedekunta | Bachelor's thesis
  • Älypuhelimen käyttö ihmisen mittaamiseen
    (2016-10-31) Valkonen, Jani
     Sähkötekniikan korkeakoulu | Master's thesis
    Tämän diplomityön aiheena on älypuhelimen käyttäminen ihmisen mittaamiseen. Tarkoituksena on tutkimuksen pohjalta suunnitella mittausjärjestely, jonka ensimmäisen vuoden opiskelijat voisivat suorittaa osana kurssia. Työn motivaationa on tarkastella tai kehittää keinoja, joilla pystyttäisiin kehittämään terveydenhuollon toimintaa. Terveydenhuoltoa olisi mahdollista kehittää siirtämällä osan mittausvastuusta potilaille, jolloin terveydenhuollon henkilöstön kuormitusta pystyttäisiin keventämään. Teoriaosuudessa on perehdytty erilaisiin älypuhelimella suoritettaviin mittauksiin. Lähteinä on käytetty eri-laisia älypuhelinmittauksia käsitteleviä tutkimuksia. Karkeasti älypuhelinmittaukset voidaan jakaa kahteen tyyppiin: älypuhelin itse mittalaitteena tai älypuhelin osana mittalaitetta. Näiden lisäksi tarkastellaan tutkimuksia, joissa älypuhelinsovelluksia käytetään hoidon apuvälineenä. Pelkästään älypuhelimilla tehtävissä mittauksissa käytetään hyväksi puhelimen omia antureita ja laitteita, kuten kameraa. Älypuhelimeen liitettävillä antureilla voidaan laajentaa älypuhelinmittauksien mahdollisuuksia. Tutkimusten perusteella mittausjärjestelyn perusteeksi on valittu sykettä ja sykevälivaihtelua mittaavat äly-puhelinsovellukset, koska näille mittauksille on tieteellinen perusta ja on mahdollisuus käyttää valmiita sovelluksia. Ehdotetussa mittausjärjestelyssä opiskelijat pohtivat mittaukseen ja anturointiin liittyviä perusteita. Pohdinnan perusteella tutustutaan sovelluksiin, joilla mittauksia on mahdollista suorittaa ja arvioidaan mittausten luotettavuutta. Mahdollisuuksien mukaan älypuhelinmittausta verrataan johonkin vaihtoehtoiseen tapaan suorittaa mittaus. Tuloksien perusteella opiskelijat arvioivat mittauksen soveltuvuutta laajempaan käyttöön.
  • Analysis of catechol, 4-methylcatechol and dopamine electrochemical reactions on different substrate materials and pH conditions
    (2018-12-01) Chumillas, Sara; Palomäki, Tommi; Zhang, Meng; Laurila, Tomi; Climent, Victor; Feliu, Juan M.
     A1 Alkuperäisartikkeli tieteellisessä aikakauslehdessä
    The electrochemical behavior of several structurally related catecholamine molecules has been investigated on different electrode materials with cyclic voltammetry, infrared spectroscopy and scanning tunnelling microscopy. Emphasis was on the identification of subsequent chemical processes that follow the main electron transfer step and complicate the interpretation of the mechanism, including the polymerization reaction and fouling of the electrode surface. Among the materials investigated, gold was found out to be the most active for the oxidation of catechol, 4-methylcatechol and dopamine. At the same time, it was also the electrode least sensitive to fouling after voltammetric cycling, exhibiting the highest reversibility. The effect of pH was also investigated. Increase in pH enhanced the processes of quinone hydroxylation and polymerization. Spectroscopic measurements allowed detection of both solution and adsorbed species participating in the oxidation and polymerization processes. Finally, STM results showed the formation of polydopamine granules on gold surfaces, which grew in size as the number of cycles increased. Measured height of the granules, less than 0.5 nm, suggests a flat orientation of the molecules conforming the polymer.
  • Application-Specific Catalyst Layers: Pt-Containing Carbon Nanofibers for Hydrogen Peroxide Detection
    (2017-02-13) Laurila, Tomi; Sainio, Sami; Jiang, Hua; Isoaho, Noora; Koehne, Jessica; Etula, Jarkko; Koskinen, Jari; Meyyappan, M.
     A1 Alkuperäisartikkeli tieteellisessä aikakauslehdessä
    Complete removal of metal catalyst particles from carbon nanofibers (CNFs) and other carbon nanostructures is extremely difficult, and the envisioned applications may be compromised by the left-over impurities. To circumvent these problems, one should use, wherever possible, such catalyst materials that are meant to remain in the structure and have some application-specific role, making any removal steps unnecessary. Thus, as a proof-of-concept, we present here a nanocarbon-based material platform for electrochemical hydrogen peroxide measurement utilizing a Pt catalyst layer to grow CNFs with intact Pt particles at the tips of the CNFs. Backed by careful scanning transmission electron microscopy analysis, we show that this material can be readily realized with the Pt catalyst layer thickness impacting the resulting structure and also present a growth model to explain the evolution of the different types of structures. In addition, we show by electrochemical analysis that the material exhibits characteristic features of Pt in cyclic voltammetry and it can detect very small amounts of hydrogen peroxide with very fast response times. Thus, the present sensor platform provides an interesting electrode material with potential for biomolecule detection and in fuel cells and batteries. In the wider range, we propose a new approach where the selection of catalytic particles used for carbon nanostructure growth is made so that (i) they do not need to be removed and (ii) they will have essential role in the final application.
  • Ascorbic acid does not necessarily interfere with the electrochemical detection of dopamine
    (2022-12) Rantataro, Samuel; Ferrer Pascual, Laura; Laurila, Tomi
     A1 Alkuperäisartikkeli tieteellisessä aikakauslehdessä
    It is widely stated that ascorbic acid (AA) interferes with the electrochemical detection of neurotransmitters, especially dopamine, because of their overlapping oxidation potentials on typical electrode materials. As the concentration of AA is several orders of magnitude higher than the concentration of neurotransmitters, detection of neurotransmitters is difficult in the presence of AA and requires either highly stable AA concentration or highly selective neurotransmitter sensors. In contrast to the common opinion, we show that AA does not always interfere electrochemical detection of neurotransmitters. The decay of AA is rapid in cell culture medium, having a half-time of 2.1 hours, according to which the concentration decreases by 93% in 8 hours and by 99.75% in 18 hours. Thus, AA is eventually no longer detected by electrodes and the concentration of neurotransmitters can be effectively monitored. To validate this claim, we used unmodified single-wall carbon nanotube electrode to measure dopamine at physiologically relevant concentration range (25–1000 nM) from human midbrain organoid medium with highly linear response. Finally, AA is known to affect dopamine oxidation current through regeneration of dopamine, which complicates precise detection of small amounts of dopamine. By designing experiments as described here, this complication can be completely eliminated.
  • Bioanturien käyttö tulehdusten havaitsemisessa
    (2016-10-31) Honkala, Jaakko
     Sähkötekniikan korkeakoulu | Master's thesis
  • Biocompatibility and reactions at biomaterial-tissue interface of an implantable sensor
    (2002) Karilainen, Anna
     Helsinki University of Technology | Master's thesis
  • Biofouling affects the redox kinetics of outer and inner sphere probes on carbon surfaces drastically differently - implications to biosensing
    (2020-08-07) Peltola, Emilia; Aarva, Anja; Sainio, Sami; Heikkinen, Joonas J.; Wester, Niklas; Jokinen, Ville; Koskinen, Jari; Laurila, Tomi
     A1 Alkuperäisartikkeli tieteellisessä aikakauslehdessä
    Biofouling imposes a significant threat for sensing probes used in vivo. Antifouling strategies commonly utilize a protective layer on top of the electrode but this may compromise performance of the electrode. Here, we investigated the effect of surface topography and chemistry on fouling without additional protective layers. We have utilized two different carbon materials; tetrahedral amorphous carbon (ta-C) and SU-8 based pyrolytic carbon (PyC) in their typical smooth thin film structure as well as with a nanopillar topography templated from black silicon. The near edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) spectrum revealed striking differences in chemical functionalities of the surfaces. PyC contained equal amounts of ketone, hydroxyl and ether/epoxide groups, while ta-C contained significant amounts of carbonyl groups. Overall, oxygen functionalities were significantly increased on nanograss surfaces compared to the flat counterparts. Neither bovine serum albumin (BSA) or fetal bovine serum (FBS) fouling caused major effects on electron transfer kinetics of outer sphere redox (OSR) probe Ru(NH3)63+ on any of the materials. In contrast, negatively charged OSR probe IrCl62- kinetics were clearly affected by fouling, possibly due to the electrostatic repulsion between redox species and the anionically-charged proteins adsorbed on the electrode and/or stronger interaction of the proteins and positively charged surface. The OSR probe kinetics were less affected by fouling on PyC, probably due to conformational changes of proteins on the surface. Dopamine (DA) was tested as an inner sphere redox (ISR) probe and as expected, the kinetics were heavily dependent on the material; PyC had very fast electron transfer kinetics, while ta-C had sluggish kinetics. DA electron transfer kinetics were heavily affected on all surfaces by fouling (ΔEp increase 30-451%). The effect was stronger on PyC, possibly due to the more strongly adhered protein layer limiting the access of the probe to the inner sphere.
  • Biomateriaalin mekaanisten ominaisuuksien vaikutus kantasolujen erilaistumiseen hermosoluiksi
    (2021-12-07) Timperi, Iida
     Sähkötekniikan korkeakoulu | Bachelor's thesis
  • Biomolekyylien tunnistus nanoselluloosa-aptameeriantureilla
    (2024-09-06) Kylmä, Oiva
     Sähkötekniikan korkeakoulu | Bachelor's thesis
    Biomolekyylien tarkka ja nopea mittaus on ratkaisevan tärkeää monilla aloilla. Terveydenhuollossa se on keskeinen tekijä sairauksien diagnostiikassa, seurannassa ja hoidossa. Elintarviketurvallisuudessa biomolekyylien pitoisuuksien mittaaminen takaa elintarvikkeiden laadun ja suojelee kuluttajia haitallisilta aineilta. Perinteisesti käytetyt mittausmenetelmät ovat usein hitaita, monimutkaisia ja kalliita. Ratkaisua on haettu bioantureista, jonka rakenneosien tarkalla valinnalla on mahdollista suunnitella tiettyyn käyttötarkoitukseen sopivia antureita. Tässä kandidaatintyössä tutkitaan biomolekyylejä mittaavia sähkökemiallisia nanoselluloosa-aptameeriantureita analysoimalla niiden eri rakenneosien vaikutusta anturien toimintaan. Työn tavoitteena on selvittää nanoselluloosan käyttömahdollisuuksia antureissa alustamateriaalina, arvioida jo kehitettyjen nanoselluloosa-aptameerianturien suorituskykyä sekä pohtia anturien tulevaisuudennäkymiä. Työ toteutettiin kirjallisuustutkimuksena. Sähkökemialliset aptameerianturit ovat osoittautuneet erittäin herkiksi, nopeiksi ja selektiivisiksi biomolekyylien tunnistamiseen. Anturit tunnistavat kohdemolekyylin aptameerien avulla. Niiden sitoutuminen kohdemolekyyliin aiheuttaa muutoksia sähkökemiallisissa ominaisuuksissa, joita mittaamalla saadaan määritettyä biomolekyylin pitoisuus näytteessä. Antureissa aptameerien alustoina käytetään usein nanomateriaaleja parantamaan anturien suorituskykyä ja helpottaamaan aptameerien kiinnitystä. Nanoselluloosa on selluloosasta saatava bioyhteensopiva, runsas ja uusiutuva nanomateriaali, jonka erityisominaisuudet kuten suuri ominaispinta-ala ja helppo kemiallinen muokattavuus mahdollistavat tehokkaiden ympäristöystävällisten anturien kehittämisen. Huonon sähkönjohtavuutensa takia sitä tulee yhdistää muihin materiaaleihin, jotta saadaan antureihin soveltuvia nanoselluloosakomposiitteja. Tarkastelun perusteella voidaan todeta, että nanoselluloosa-komposiitit soveltuvat erinomaisesti sähkökemiallisten aptameerianturien alustoiksi. Valmistetut anturit mittasivat monipuolisesti erilaisia biomolekyylejä. Nanoselluloosan komposiitteja käytettiin tukirakenteena, estämään häiritsevien aineiden kertymistä anturin pintaan, parantamaan aptameerien ja nanomateriaalien kiinnitystä anturiin sekä kasvattamaan anturin aktiivista pinta-alaa. Anturit olivat herkkiä ja selektiiviä ja myös niiden stabiilisuus parantui. Kuitenkin aptameereja pitää pystyä valmistamaan kustannustehokkaammin, nopeammin ja reaalimaailman tilanteisiin ja nanoselluloosan valmistusprosessien pitää olla energiatehokkaampia ja ympäristöystävällisempiä, ennen anturien laajamittaista käyttöönottoa.
  • Carbon nanomaterials interfacing with neurons
    (2019-09-30) Muukkonen, Maarit
     Perustieteiden korkeakoulu | Master's thesis
  • Carbon thin films as electrode material in neural sensing
    (2014-11-25) Kaivosoja, Emilia; Sainio, Sami; Lyytinen, Jussi; Palomäki, Tommi; Laurila, Tomi; Kim, Sung I.; Han, Jeon G.; Koskinen, Jari
     A1 Alkuperäisartikkeli tieteellisessä aikakauslehdessä
  • A carbon-based electrochemical aptasensor for detection of vancomycin
    (2023-08-21) Gustafsson, Eero
     Kemian tekniikan korkeakoulu | Master's thesis
    Labelled, carbon-based electrochemical aptasensor was developed for detecting vancomycin from biologically relevant samples in the therapeutically relevant concentration ranges below 50µM. Both hand-prepared and commercially manufactured electrodes were used to measure vancomycin using square wave voltammetry (SWV) in measurement buffers such as phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and human plasma. In contrast to traditional gold-based electrochemical aptasensors, the electrode materials investigated in this work were carbon-based, with single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) being the electrode material tested and tried, ultimately hoping for the carbon-based aptasensor architecture to function as an electrochemical platform technology for the detection of various different biomolecules for point-of-care (POC) testing. A couple of different aptamer functionalisation techniques were tested: (1) direct carbodiimide crosslinking via EDC/NHS chemistry, (2) using the 𝜋 − 𝜋 stacking to our advantage by using an aromatic linker molecule 1-pyrenebutyric acid with an NHS-ester and finally (3) trying to use carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as a monolayer for aptamer functionalisation via EDC/NHS coupling. Unfortunately the adsorptive tendencies of SWCNTs and unsuccessful coupling protocols seemingly hindered the sensor development process, as the AttoMB2-labelled aptamers seem to, against all hypotheses, adsorb to the SWCNT surfaces via the labelled end, compromising the degree of freedom required for optimal functioning. The ferrocene-labelled aptamers were seemingly unusable with these functionalisation trials at every stage of the project, due to inherent instability arising from uncertain phenomena. The result was a long project full of sensor development via the “trial-and-error”- method, with the end-product being capable of sensing vancomycin in rather limiting circumstances via the loss of current, most likely arising from the net loss of non- specifically attached aptamers due to the binding of vancomycin. Further development and testing volume is necessary for the future development of such a sensor, with consideration of other carbonaceous electrode materials recommended as well.
  • Cell-free DNA extraction using bead-based microfluidics
    (2022-05-16) Mikkola, Iina
     Sähkötekniikan korkeakoulu | Master's thesis
    Cell-free DNA (cfDNA) is extracellular degraded DNA circulating in the body fluids. It contains genetic information, which can be utilized in different research fields, such as oncology and non-invasive prenatal testing. In order to analyse cfDNA it should be first extracted from plasma or other body fluids. Low concentrations and other properties of cfDNA create challenges for efficient cfDNA extraction. Although there are many commercial extraction kits, there is no gold standard for the extraction. Aim of this thesis was to study cfDNA extraction and develop a new microfluidic extraction method, which does not utilize magnets. cfDNA extraction protocol was designed during this thesis and it was tested with different filter systems. Obtained eluates were studied with capillary electrophoresis and with quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). A new microfluidic cfDNA extraction method was developed during this thesis. The developed method utilizes non-magnetic silica beads and microfluidic filter and it can be successfully used to extract cfDNA from plasma sample. The obtained results are directional but they provide a foundation for developing a new microfluidic device for cfDNA extraction.
  • Challenges in aptamer-based sensor development using carbon nanotube networks
    (2024-12) Ferrer Pascual, Laura; Gustafsson, Eero; Siitonen, Juha; Durairaj, Vasuki; Laurila, Tomi
     A1 Alkuperäisartikkeli tieteellisessä aikakauslehdessä
    Electrochemical aptamer-based (EAB) sensors represent a promising biosensing platform, leveraging the selectivity of aptamers and the advantages of electrochemical methods. These sensors offer high sensitivity, rapid response, low limits of detection, cost-effectiveness, and miniaturization potential. While gold electrodes have been predominantly used in EAB sensors, alternatives such as carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are gaining attention. CNTs offer advantages like large surface area and conductivity but pose challenges due to their reactivity and 3D network structure. In this study, we explore the development of EAB sensors using single-wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT) networks, emphasizing on the challenges and electroanalytical insights. Three key electrochemical parameters are proposed for assessing EAB sensor performance: (i) variations in peak current, (ii) shifts in peak position, and (iii) the restoration of the background current. Focusing solely on peak current changes can be misleading, as factors like aptamer surface depletion can influence it. Additionally, both partial and integrated currents should be monitored in square wave voltammetry (SWV) analysis, considering both ON and OFF behaviours across frequencies. This comprehensive approach provides a preliminary assessment of successful binding and surface passivation in EAB sensors when combined with surface analytical techniques such as surface plasmon resonance (SPR) measurements.